Within cross-sectional studies, number of years since first partnering with an assistance dog ranged from 6-months to 45 years with means ranging from 29 years. In addition, many studies did not account for confounding variables such as having a pet dog, the progressiveness or type of disability, or relationship status. Finally, Rodriguez et al. For example, we know what the connections are between the amygdala and other brain regions, but how does activity in the amygdala affect brain functioning? However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. To summarize study outcomes, extracted items included statistical comparisons for any psychosocial outcomes from included studies. However, results suggested that for most outcomes, having an assistance dog had no effect on psychosocial health and wellbeing. In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [77]. The three Rs are a set of principles that scientists are encouraged to follow in order to reduce the impact of research on animals. As the assistance dog itself is the key component of the intervention, details regarding the dogs breeding, rearing, selection, and training, as well as the assistance dog-handler matching process are critical to disentangling potential mechanisms [75]. of Agriculture, and, at the local level by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). A total of 1,830 records were screened via title and abstract in which 1,576 records were excluded due to irrelevancy (see Fig 1 for PRISMA diagram). Capitanio, J. This research aimed to conduct a systematic assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of assistance dogs on standardized outcomes of the health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. At this stage, articles were excluded if they were (1) non-English; (2) written for a magazine or other non-peer-reviewed source; (3) book reviews, book chapters, editorials, letters, or opinion papers that did not collect original data; (4) conference abstracts or proceedings; (5) studies assessing companion, therapy, or emotional support animals that were not trained for tasks or work related to a specific disability. After the initial title and abstract review, articles were screened based on full text. As with every experimental methodology, there are disadvantages to using animals in experiments. Apprehension around burgeoning medical research in the late 1800s and the first half of the 20 th century sparked concerns over the use of humans and animals in research , .Suspicions around the use of humans were deepened with the revelation of several exploitive research projects, including a series of medical . Oversight and inspection of facilities is provided by the U.S. Dept. While there are no legal requirements specifying that an assistance dog must be certified, registered, or receive any specialized training to receive public access rights, independent organizations such as ADI, the International Association of Assistance Dog Partners (IAADP), and the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) define a set of minimum training and behavior standards for public access that help guide the assistance dog industry. Therefore, in the cases where positive outcomes were reported in these studies, it is unknown what amount of time with an assistance dog the finding was associated with (and therefore difficult to compare to findings from other studies). A final potential reason for outcome discrepancies is variation in methodological rigor across studies. Records were independently screened by two authors. In terms of emotional functioning, two studies found positive results using the SF-36 role emotional domain; Lundqvist et al. However, Lundqvist et al. The three Rs. However, because case studies are often based on a single individual or small group, they may not be representative of the larger population. The search strategy was adapted to the other databases, including mapping terms to each databases thesaurus or prescribed vocabulary, as appropriate. Only 6/27 (22%) reported any estimates of effect size in their results. Using a new technique, it is now possible to temporarily inactivate the amygdala in a monkey and see how other brain areas (including those that are not directly connected to the amygdala) change their activity (Grayson et al., 2016). Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. Abstract. Future research should focus on assessing outcomes from these medical alert and response assistance dogs and how their roles may be similar or different than mobility, guide, or hearing dogs. Studies made an average of 5.4 statistical comparisons on psychosocial outcomes, ranging from 115 comparisons. Additionally, research suggests the relationship between an assistance dog and its owner may also serve as a reciprocal attachment and caregiving relationship characterized by secure and strong attachments [18, 19]. To assess methodological rigor, a total of 15 extracted items were sourced from methodological assessment tools including the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Study Quality Assessment Tools [24], the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) checklist [25], the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklists [26], and the Specialist Unit for Review Evidence (SURE) Checklists [27]. Undergraduates sometimes ask what the value of animal research is in psychology. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243302, Editor: Geilson Lima Santana, University of Sao Paulo Medical School, BRAZIL, Received: July 22, 2020; Accepted: November 18, 2020; Published: December 2, 2020. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, Of 15 cross-sectional studies that surveyed individuals who owned assistance dogs for variable periods of time, 4/15 studies (27%) considered length of time of assistance dog ownership as a potential explanatory or moderating variable in analyses. In particular, not only did studies vary largely in terms of sample size, but they also varied in the manner in which statistical analyses were conducted. Capitanios research interests are focused on developing naturally-occurring nonhuman primate models of psychological processes, in order to better understand the underlying biology of phenomena such as loneliness, inhibited temperament and poor social functioning. [15] found a significant increase in pep, energy, and feeling less worn out 3- and 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog while three studies found no relationship between the vitality domain and having a mobility service dog [17, 28] or a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35]. Animal studies in psychology. purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). In methods sections, only 16/27 (59%) of studies indicated whether ethical approval for conducting human subjects research was sought and received. However, more than half of all studies (16/27; 59%) had sample sizes greater than or equal to N = 50. Two of the most well-known animal studies were conducted by Konrad Lorenz and Harry Harlow. Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 1055). https://assistancedogsinternational.org/resources/adi-terms-definitions/, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00120-8, https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools, https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/specialist-unit-for-review-evidence/resources/critical-appraisal-checklists, Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. However, only 1/6 (17%) found a significant effect, in which Yarmolkevich found higher life satisfaction among those with a guide dog compared to a control group. Brought to you by Sciencing Unnecessary Cruelty Animal rights advocates argue that testing on animals is cruel and unnecessary. Other studies assessed outcomes from hearing dogs (7/27; 26%), guide dogs (4/27; 15%), and medical alert/response service dogs (2/27; 7%). For example, without any animal research, effective treatments for human conditions like Alzheimers disease may very well be found, but it would certainly take decades longer to find them, and in the meantime, millions and millions of additional people would suffer. Limitations and Benefits of Psychological Research on Animals Many people see animal testing as a cruel and inhumane practice. Copyright: 2020 Rodriguez et al. Neuron. Many studies did not confirm that participants across groups were statistically equivalent on key demographic variables such as age and sex/gender before conducting statistical analyses. Kerri E. Rodriguez, However, inclusion and exclusion criteria were less commonly described (17/27; 63%). As Serpell and colleagues point out, individuals that dont benefit from animal-assisted interventions may be just as informative from a scientific perspective as the ones that do, and the entire field potentially suffers when these sorts of contrary or ambiguous findings get buried or ignored [74]. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks dont give the full picture of animal research. Future research will benefit from stronger methodological rigor and reporting to account for heterogeneity in both humans and assistance dogs as well as continued high-quality replication. [16] found higher emotional functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group. However, increasingly modern methods allow the 3R principle of reducing, refining and replacing animal experiments to be put into practice . Two studies from the a single thesis [29] made the remaining 14 comparisons on measures of loneliness distress and complementary loneliness, finding no significant changes to loneliness six months after receiving a hearing dog and no significant group differences in loneliness compared to those without a hearing dog. A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. Many times animals have been tested on a drug and the drug was considered not harmful. Of 1,830 records screened, 24 articles were identified (12 publications, 12 theses) containing 27 studies (15 cross-sectional, 12 longitudinal). If youve taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinners rats, Pavlovs dogs, Harlows monkeys. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. [32] reported no relationship between the mobility domain and having a service dog or hearing dog. If small rodents are incapable of feeding, they will die within hours - it is highly likely that many substances would not be toxic if a simple sugar solution was injected. Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting information files. Inability to draw cause-and-effect conclusions: The biggest disadvantage of naturalistic observation is that determining the exact cause of a subject's behavior can be difficult. On the other hand, Donovan [28] found no change in emotional functioning 4-months after receiving mobility service dog. Jane K. Yatcilla, The electronic searches were performed on July 23, 2018, and updated on January 23, 2019. Still, some harms will remain, and ethically, one must weigh those harms against the potential benefits (for humans and for the animals themselves) to be obtained from the research. Two studies found increased social participation 3-, 6-, and 12-months [15] as well as 7-months [33] after receiving a mobility service dog, while Donovan [28] found no change in social participation 4-months receiving a mobility service dog. In the overall quality of life sub-category, 2/8 (25%) comparisons were significant. This pattern suggests a potential publication bias present in which disproportionately more positive findings are in the published studies than the unpublished theses [78]. This practice was instrumental in our evolution and in the emergence of civilization. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. Why is animal psychology important? Animal models are a fundamental tool in the life sciences. Summary of social outcomes across studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. Therefore, the current literature is limited to correlational, rather than causal conclusions regarding the benefits of assistance dogs on the psychosocial health of their owners. In longitudinal studies, the first follow-up time point varied from 3- to 12-months after receiving an assistance dog. Guest [13] used the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], finding less overall mood disturbance, less tension, and less confusion 3-months after hearing dog placement. Using the occupation domain of the CHART, Rintala et al. Most studies reported adequate detail on participant demographics such as age and sex or gender identity (23/27; 85%) as well as disability characteristics such as primary diagnoses or severity (22/27; 81%). t, F, or B values) and only 55% (15/27) of studies reported exact probability values from analyses. Animal Domestication: Animal domestication is when humans take animals from the wild and keep them over successive generations in controlled environments where the animals are always available to humans. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? Of 27 studies, 7 (26%) reported outcomes from at least one standardized measure of vitality with a total of five different standardized measures. The CES-D asks participants to rate how often they had experienced 20 depressive symptoms in the prior week using statements such as I thought my life had been a failure, while the POMS asks participants to rate from not at all to extremely how they feel right now using single words such as sad and unhappy. It is also possible that some standardized measures do not capture the intended effects from having an assistance dog. Second, there is inherent variation in both the quality and quantity of interactions from one assistance dog-owner pair to the next. Samples ranged from 15% male to 85% male, with an average of 42% male participants across all studies. Marguerite E. OHaire, Affiliation: In the economic domain of the CHART, which assesses socio-economic independence, Davis [44] again found that those with a mobility service dog reported worse economic functioning than controls while two mobility dog studies reported null findings [30, 41]. Subjectivity Researchers working with dolphins and primates have been criticised for becoming overly attached to the research and exaggerating findings. Finally, information regarding the ethical and regulatory environments in which animal research is conducted is covered in a superficial manner or omitted altogether. Six comparisons were made to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on clinical measures of depression or anxiety. However, a recent 2018 review summarized five published quantitative studies describing outcomes from seizure alert and seizure response service dogs. [15] found no difference in self-esteem, adequacy, or competency over 12-months following receiving a mobility service dog. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for psychological Research. Most studies (24/27; 89%) assessed outcomes from a single type of assistance dog (e.g. As research on the assistance animal-handler relationship continues to increase, there is a need for an updated, comprehensive collation of the literature encompassing studies on the effects of all varieties of assistance dogs (guide dogs, hearing dogs, and both mobility and medical service dogs) including both published studies and unpublished theses and dissertations. While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. Finally, most studies (21/27;78%) compared outcomes to a control or comparison condition. To be sure, each species has its own specializations that enable it to fit into its unique ecological niche; but common ancestry results in structural (e.g., brain) and functional (e.g., memory) processes that are remarkably similar between humans and nonhumans. Continued efforts are required to improve methodological rigor, conduct replicable research, and account for heterogeneity in both humans and animals to advance the state of knowledge in this field. mobility or guide), thus restricting human participants to a single category of impairments. In addition, we can better understand fundamental processes because of the precise control enabled by animal research (e.g., living environments, experimental conditions, etc.). Table 5 displays all quality of life outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of overall quality of life, life satisfaction, and independence. Promising areas include psychological wellbeing, emotional wellbeing, and social participation in which several positive outcomes were identified. However, three studies collapsed analyses across several types of assistance dogs and impairments. Research on non-human primates, for instance, continues to offer valuable perspectives into the causes and evolution of individual, social, and reproductive human actions. As the field of animal-assisted intervention is multidisciplinary, a wide and extensive search was conducted encompassing medical and scientific databases. Most animals, once the testing process has been completed, are euthanized. In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. Answer and Explanation: Articles were extracted for information based on three aims to describe study characteristics, assess methodological rigor, and summarize outcomes. APA 2023 registration is now open! Advantages and disadvantages of animal models commonly used for | Download Scientific Diagram Advantages and disadvantages of various animal models in biomedical | Download Scientific Diagram Citation: Rodriguez KE, Greer J, Yatcilla JK, Beck AM, OHaire ME (2020) The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and wellbeing: A systematic literature review. The disadvantage of animal research is that it lessens the value of life. Positive outcomes included significant effects of having an assistance dog on psychological wellbeing, emotional functioning, self-esteem, and vitality. The deprived monkeys became unable to integrate socially, unable to form attachments, and were severely emotionally disturbed. Most studies (17/27; 63%) recruited from a single assistance dog provider organization, while the remaining studies recruited from a range of providers (7/27; 26%) or did not report the source of the assistance dogs in the study (3/27; 11%). Another potential reason for the inconsistencies in findings from studies assessing the same construct is disparities across standardized measures. In the case of disagreements, inclusion or exclusion was resolved by discussion and consultation with a third independent reviewer (author MO). The main reason why they are inaccurate is because of the huge differences between humans and animals. psychiatric service dogs for posttraumatic stress disorder or autism spectrum disorder). A more recent systematic review published by Winkle and colleagues in 2012 [9] summarized 12 published quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog placement (omitting guide dogs, hearing dogs, and unpublished theses). Using other standardized measures of independence, Matsunaka & Koda [42] found that those with guide dogs reported and lower stress while being mobile. The authors found three studies reporting an association between having a seizure alert or response dog and improvements to quality of life and wellbeing, concluding a need for more research. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. The first emphasizes that the welfare of animals is important in its own right and that animals must be treated humanely. Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%.
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